Bonaventure

Sequitur huius libri tractatus.

(Vers. 2.). Vanitas vanitatum, dixit Ecclesiastes, vanitas vanitatum, et omnia vanitas. — Hic incipit tractatus; et quia « finis imponit necessitatem his quae sunt ad finem⁸ »; cum finis huius libri sit omnium rerum contemptus et Dei solius timor: ideo in omnibus intendit ostendere vanitatem. Et quia procedit tanquam concionator persuadendo et probando, ideo tractatus iste habet tres partes: quia primo proponit quod intendit probare, scilicet esse in omnibus vanitatem; secundo probat, ibi⁹: Quid habet amplius homo de labore suo etc.; tertio concludit tanquam probatum circa finem: Vanitas vanitatum etc.

Propositio rei probandae.

Proponit ergo in rebus triplicem vanitatem, scilicet poenalitatis, iniquitatis, mutabilitatis. Quantum ad vanitatem poenalitatis: Vanitas vanitatum, dixit Ecclesiastes, id est, proposuit. De hac, infra secundo¹⁰: Cuncti dies eius laboribus pleni sunt, nec per noctem mente requiescit; et hoc nonne vanitas est? — Quantum ad vanitatem iniquitatis dicit iterum: Vanitas vanitatum; unde Ieremiae p. 11 decimo¹: Vana sunt opera eorum et risu digna; in die visitationis suae peribunt. — Quantum ad vanitatem mutabilitatis dicit: et omnia vanitas, quia omnia subiecta sunt mutabilitati; ad Romanos octavo²: Vanitati subiecta est creatura non volens; et infra tertio: Cuncta subiacent vanitati, et omnia pergunt ad locum unum. Non igitur est verborum inculcatio, cum ter dicit vanitas, sed intelligibilium mira distinctio.

Et notandum, quod ista triplex vanitas est consequenter se habens, et una ex altera oritur: quia vanitas iniquitatis ex vanitate mutabilitatis, licet illa non sit tota causa; vanitas vero poenalitatis ex vanitate iniquitatis. Has igitur vanitates ordine praepostero resolutorio ordinat, et e contrario in consequentibus prosequitur. Et quia illa duplex vanitas ortum habet ex alia vanitate, sed tertia non; ideo bis³ dicit vanitas vanitatum, et post tantum vanitas.

Notandum est etiam, quod haec triplex vanitas in homine reperitur, quia ipse est, in quem cadit poena et culpa; et propter hoc dicitur in Psalmo⁴: Universa vanitas omnis homo vivens. Est enim in eo vanitas naturae, vanitas culpae et vanitas poenae. De vanitate naturae, in Psalmo: Homo vanitati similis factus est, dies eius sicut umbra praetereunt. De vanitate culpae, in Psalmo similiter: Dominus scit cogitationes hominum, quoniam vanae sunt. De vanitate poenae, Iob decimo quarto: Homo natus de muliere, brevi vivens tempore, repletur multis miseriis.

Notandum etiam, quod ipse Salomon loquitur de se quasi de alio, sicut Ioannes, vigesimo primo⁵: Hic est discipulus ille, qui testimonium perhibet de his; et similiter Moyses. Huius autem potest ratio assignari triplex: una est ex parte efficientis primi, quia Spiritus sanctus ipse est auctor Scripturae, non Salomon vel alius; ideo, quando introducitur ipse in sacra Scriptura, debet Scriptura de ipso facere sermonem quasi de alio, sicut dixit Balaam Numerorum vigesimo quarto⁶: Dixit auditor sermonum Dei etc. — Alia ratio sumitur ex parte efficientis immediati: quia Scriptura omnem refugit superbiam et praetendit humilitatem; et ideo nullus in ea doctor debet de se ut de se loqui, sed propter humilitatem quasi de alio⁷. — Tertia ratio: quando Scriptura magna innuit et mirabilia, debet quasi a longinquo ostendere; unde Hugo⁸: « Hoc genus locutionis, quoties in Scriptura assumitur, vel humilitatis causa fit, vel admirationis. Nam et magna propter humilitatem a nobis removere debemus, et mirabilia propter admirationem quasi de longe ostendere ». Exemplum in Paulo et Ioanne.

Divisio totius probationis.

Quid habet amplius homo etc. Supra proposuit quod probare intendit, hic probare incipit; et secundum quod triplex vanitas proposita fuit esse in rebus, sic et triplex esse probatur. Unde habet haec pars tres partes. Primo enim in rebus ostendit esse vanitatem mutabilitatis; secundo vero, vanitatem iniquitatis, ibi⁹: Vidi sub sole in loco iudicii impietatem; tertio, vanitatem poenalitatis, infra septimo: Cuncta tentavi in sapientia. « Prima est naturalis et apta, ut dicit Hugo; secunda culpabilis, quia perversa; tertia vero poenalis et misera ».

Pars I. Probatur vanitas mutabilitatis quoad duo.

Mutabilitas autem in rebus dupliciter consideratur: uno modo ratione transmutationis, alio modo in comparatione ad mensuram certi temporis. Primo ergo agitur de vanitate naturae mutabilis quantum ad transmutationem; secundo, quantum ad tempus, infra tertio¹⁰: Omnia tempus habent.

Partis primae membrum I. Ostenditur vanitas naturae mutabilis quoad transmutationem.

Prima habet duas, quia primo ostendit, in rebus esse mutabilitatem, et per hoc vanitatem; secundo vero ex cognitione eius suam reprehendit curiositatem, ibi¹¹: Ego Ecclesiastes fui rex etc.

Art. 1. Probatur mutabilitas in existentia creaturarum quoad duplex esse.

Ostenditur igitur primo mutabilitas in existentia creaturarum. Et quia creaturae triplex habent esse, scilicet in Verbo, ratione exemplaritatis; in universo, per modum materialitatis; in animo humano, per modum abstractionis¹²; primum esse est indeficiens et immutabile, unde nullam habet vanitatem; sed in aliis est vanitas; et ideo haec pars habet duas: quia primo notatur vanitas mutabilitatis in rebus secundum esse, quod habent in universo; secundo, quantum ad esse, quod habent in animo humano, ibi¹³: Cunctae res difficiles etc. p. 12

Probatur vanitas mutabilitatis secundum esse rerum in universo, et hoc tripliciter.

Prima pars habet tres secundum tria genera creaturarum, in quibus ostendit mutabilitatem: quia primo ostendit in creatura rationali; secundo, in caelesti, ibi¹: Oritur sol; tertio, elementari, ibi: Lustrans universa etc.

(Vers. 3. 4.). Quantum igitur ad creaturam rationalem, hominem scilicet, ostendit esse mutabilitatem, a qua nullo labore potest eripi; propter quod dicit: Quid habet amplius homo de universo labore suo, quo laborat sub sole? Supple: nisi vanitatem et mutabilitatem, quasi dicat: nihil. De hoc labore dicitur Iob quinto²: « Avis nascitur ad volandum, et homo ad laborem »; et Genesis tertio: « Maledicta terra in opere tuo; in labore comedes ex ea cunctis diebus vitae tuae ». — Et quod non habeat amplius quam vanitatem, ostendit, cum subdit: Generatio praeterit, et generatio advenit. Ergo mutatio est et successio tam in homine quam in suis operibus; Ecclesiastici decimo quarto³: « Alia generantur, et alia deiiciuntur; sic generatio carnis et sanguinis: alia finitur, et alia nascitur »; secundum quod dicitur Iacobi quarto: « Quae est vita vestra nisi vapor ad modicum parens »? Sed dum corrumpuntur, non cedunt in nihil, sed in aliquid, quia in terram; unde dictum est Adae⁴: « Pulvis es, et in pulverem reverteris ». Propterea subdit: Terra vero in aeternum stat, quasi materia, ad quam fit resolutio; Psalmus: « Qui fundasti terram super stabilitatem suam »; et Proverbiorum octavo: « Quando appendebat fundamenta terrae ».

(Vers. 5. 6.). Oritur sol et occidit etc. Hic secundo ostendit mutabilitatem in natura caelesti, ut puta in sole, qui nunquam quiescit, sed cum oritur, tendit ad occasum, unde non permanet in ortu. Propterea dicit: Oritur sol et occidit, ita quod in loco ortus non permanet nec etiam in loco occasus; unde subdit: Et ad locum suum revertitur. Nec ibi permanet, unde et subdit: Ibique renascens gyrat per meridiem. Nec etiam in loco medio permanet; ideo subdit: Et flectitur ad aquilonem.

Istud exponi potest quantum ad motum diurnum, vel etiam annuum. Quantum ad diurnum, dicit Hugo⁵: « Oritur sol quotidie, quando humanis praesentatur aspectibus. Occidit, quando, descendens ad inferiores partes, oculis nostris se subtrahit. Revertitur ad locum suum, quia, impellente volubilitate subtus, rursus ad locum suum revertitur. Sed renascens gyrat per meridiem, quia obliquo ductu ab ortu ad lineam meridianam conscendit; deinde flectitur ad aquilonem, quia, ad occasum descendens, rursus obliqua progressione ad aquilonem inclinatur ». — Quantum ad motum annuum sic: « Oritur sol, quando per vernale aequinoctium ad nostrum polum consurgit. Occidit, quando per autumnale aequinoctium exiens ad inferiora descendit. Gyrat per meridiem⁶, quando in hiemalibus signis commoratur. Flectitur ad aquilonem, quando in aestivis signis, quae polo boreali viciniora sunt, circumfertur ». Et sic non stat sol per naturam, sed solum per miraculum, sicut legitur Iosue decimo⁷: « Sol contra Gabaon ne movearis, et luna contra vallem Hailon » etc.

(Vers. 6.). Lustrans universa. Hic tangitur tertio mutabilitas in natura elementari, et primo quantum ad aërem, secundo vero quantum ad aquam, ibi: Omnia flumina intrant in mare. — Quantum ad aërem, cum tangit mutabilitatem in spiritu sive in vento, qui vel est motus aëris secundum aliquos philosophos, vel secundum Aristotelem⁸ motus vaporis in aëre, ad cuius motum etiam movetur aër. Propter quod dicit: Lustrans universa in circuitu pergit spiritus, id est, ventus omnia perlustrando circuit. Spiritus dicitur ventus; Exodi decimo quinto⁹: « Flavit spiritus tuus, Domine, et operuit eos mare »; et in Psalmo: « Ignis, grando, nix, glacies, spiritus procellarum ». — Hic pergit in circuitu, quia oritur a quatuor plagis terrae; Zachariae secundo¹⁰: « Fugite de terra aquilonis, quoniam in quatuor ventos caeli dispersi vos »; et Ezechielis trigesimo septimo: « A quatuor ventis veni, p. 13 spiritus » etc. Quatuor enim venti sunt principales et octo collaterales. — Et in circulos suos revertitur, quia tunc cessat ventus, quando vapor ille quiescit et ad terram, unde oritur, revertitur. Et quia causa illa est occulta, ideo dicitur in Psalmo¹: « Qui producit ventos de thesauris suis », id est occultis.

Vel, sicut exponit Glossa, potest hoc intelligi de sole quantum ad motum annuum, qui lustrat universa et revertitur in circulos zodiaci; et dicitur sol spiritus, quia principium et causa vitae omnis; unde cetera facit spirare.

(Vers. 7.). Omnia flumina etc. Hic tangitur mutabilitas quantum ad naturam elementarem visibilem, scilicet aquam, quia non est ibi status; omnes enim aquae moventur ad mare; unde dicit: Omnia flumina intrant in mare, scilicet magnum oceanum, de quo dicitur Iob trigesimo octavo²: « Quis conclusit ostiis mare, quando erumpebat, quasi de vulva procedens »? Et motus iste non terminatur, quia mare non impletur; ideo subdit: Et mare non redundat. Et quia istud videtur mirabile, ideo reddit huius causam: Ad locum, unde exeunt, flumina revertuntur, non ut ibi quiescant, sed ut iterum fluant. Flumina exeunt occulte, manifeste redeunt, quia per meatus subterraneos et excolationes quasdam exeunt. Et sic omnia feruntur in circuitu et vanitati subiecta sunt; Hugo³: « Ecce, quomodo in circuitu feruntur omnia et vanitati subiecta sunt; et scimus, quia circulus finem non habet; quae ergo in circuitu currunt, currunt quidem, sed ad finem non perveniunt. Quae igitur requies sperari potest, ubi status nullus esse potest? Et ideo de impiis dictum est: « Caput circuitus eorum »; et iterum: « In circuitu impii ambulant »; et iterum: « Deus meus, pone illos ut rotam ».

Spiritualiter notandum, quis sit iste sol, quis sit iste spiritus lustrans, quae flumina circumeuntia et redeuntia.

Sol iste est Christus, de quo Malachiae quarto⁴: « Orietur vobis timentibus nomen meum Sol iustitiae ». Iste sol oritur in nativitate ad illuminandum; Isaiae sexagesimo: « Surge, illuminare, Ierusalem »; et Ioannis primo: « Erat lux vera, quae illuminat omnem hominem ». — Iste sol occidit, in passione ad redimendum; Amos octavo⁵: « Occidet sol in meridie », id est in vehementi amore caritatis. — Iste sol ad locum suum revertitur, in ascensione; Lucae decimo nono: « Homo quidam abiit in regionem longinquam » etc. — Iste sol gyrat per meridiem, id est in ferventi Sanctorum dilectione; Cantici primo⁶: « Indica mihi, quem diligit anima mea, ubi pascas, ubi cubes in meridie »; et Ioannis decimo quarto: « Si quis diligit me » etc., post: « Ad eum veniemus et mansionem apud eum faciemus ». — Iste flectitur ad aquilonem in extremo examine; Ieremiae primo: « Ab aquilone pandetur omne malum » etc.

Spiritus iste lustrans est Spiritus sanctus, qui ideo lustrare dicitur, quia nos facit omnia perscrutari; primae ad Corinthios secundo⁷: « Spiritus omnia scrutatur, etiam profunda Dei ». — Iste dicitur ire in circuitu, quia nos facit circuire; unde Sapientiae septimo⁸: « Spiritus sapientiae mobilis »; sicut etiam circuiens, quia nos facit considerare circuitum miseriae; Iob primo: « Nudus egressus sum de utero matris meae, et nudus revertar illuc ». Item circuitus gratiae, de quo Ioannis decimo sexto: « Exivi a Patre et veni in mundum, et iterum relinquo mundum et vado ad Patrem ». Item gloriae, Ezechielis primo: « Hic erat aspectus splendoris per gyrum, et haec erat similitudo gloriae Domini ». Hunc facit considerare Spiritus Dei; secundae ad Corinthios tertio: « Nos revelata facie gloriam Domini speculabimur » etc. — Iste circuitus est in consideratione, quod omnia a Deo et ad Deum. Et dicit Dionysius⁹, quod Angeli circulariter moventur circa thronum.

Flumina ista sunt flumina gratiarum, de quibus Ioannis septimo¹⁰: « Qui credit in me, sicut dicit Scriptura, flumina de ventre eius fluent ». — Mare, a quo flumina habent ortum, est divinae largitatis immensitas, quae non augetur nec minuitur; « Magnus enim Dominus noster et magna virtus eius; et sapientiae eius non est numerus ». — Ad hoc mare redeunt flumina gratiarum actionum, ut iterum fluant; Ioannis quarto: « Qui biberit ex aqua hac, quam ego dabo ei, fiet in eo fons aquae salientis in vitam aeternam ». Ab hoc exeunt; Iacobi primo: p. 14 « Omne datum optimum et omne donum perfectum desursum est ». Et sicut flumina cessant esse et siccantur, cum cessant fluere et quiescunt; sic et dona gratiarum; Psalmus: « Tu dirupisti fontes et torrentes », per largitatem; « tu siccasti fluvios Ethan », per iudicii severitatem.

Quaestiones.

I. Quaeritur hic primo de hoc quod dicit: Quid habet amplius homo etc.?

1. Ista videtur esse haeretica sententia et convenire cum illa, quod vanus est omnis, qui servit Deo¹.

2. Item in Psalmo² dicitur: Patientia pauperum non peribit in finem: ergo aliquid etc.

3. Item Proverbiorum duodecimo³: Qui operatur terram suam satiabitur panibus: ergo bonum est operari et laborare.

Respondeo: sicut dicit Hugo⁴, facienda est vis in hoc, quod dicit: Quo laborat sub sole; « idem enim est, ac si diceret: sub tempore ».

Propter quod notandum, quod quaedam fiunt cum tempore, ut illa quorum ortum non praecessit tempus, sicut angelica natura et materia prima. Quaedam fiunt in tempore, quae inceperunt post temporis ortum, sed in tempore non habent occasum, ut anima Petri. Quaedam fiunt in tempore et sub tempore, quae post ortum temporis inchoant et in tempore terminantur, cuiusmodi sunt mutabilia. Et talia sunt duplicia: quaedam enim fiunt pro tempore et sub tempore, et talia transeunt actu et fructu; quaedam pro aeternitate, et talia transeunt actu, sed manent radice et fructu, quia manet bona voluntas in aeternum remuneranda.

Cum igitur dicit, quod non habet homo nisi vanitatem de universo labore, quo laborat sub sole; intelligitur, secundum quod labor est sub tempore quantum ad actum et intentionem; et tunc non habet locum in bonis.

II. Item quaeritur de hoc quod dicit: Terra in aeternum stat.

Contra: 1. Matthaei vigesimo quarto⁵: Caelum et terra transibunt: ergo non stat terra.

2. Item, Apocalypsis vigesimo primo⁶: Vidi caelum novum et terram novam, ergo terra inveteratur: non ergo stat etc.

Respondeo: dicendum, quod terram stare est dupliciter: vel quantum ad substantiam, vel quantum ad figuram sive dispositionem; dico, quod terra stat in aeternum quantum ad substantiam, sed praeterit quantum ad figuram; primae ad Corinthios septimo⁷: Praeterit figura huius mundi. Sed homines generantur et corrumpuntur quantum ad substantiam, ut non homines, sed mortui merito appellentur.

Vel aeternum dicitur multipliciter: uno modo, quod non habet finem in Scriptura praescriptum; sic data fuit filiis Israel terra promissionis in possessionem aeternam. Alio modo, quod habet finem, sed non in tempore; sic tempus dicitur esse aeternum. Tertio modo, cuius significatum nunquam finitur⁸. Quarto modo, cuius substantia nunquam finitur. Quinto modo, cuius substantia nec finitur nec incepit. — Hoc ultimo modo solus Deus; quarto modo convenit terrae quantum ad substantiam, tertio modo quantum ad significatum, primis duobus modis quantum ad figuram. — Et sic patet responsio ad illud dupliciter.

III. Item quaeritur de hoc quod dicit: Oritur sol et occidit.

1. Cum enim alia similiter luminaria oriantur, quaeritur, propter quid magis de sole dicit quam de aliis?

2. Item, videtur inordinate procedere, quia prius dicit, quod occidit, quam dicat, quod gyrat per meridiem; prius enim gyrat quam occidat.

Respondeo: ad hoc dicendum, quod determinata mutabilitate in sole, qui est nobilissimus et lucidissimus inter corpora caelestia, sufficienter datur intelligi in aliis.

2. Ad illud secundum dicendum, quod non ordinat secundum progressum, sed secundum dimensiones sive terminos dimensionum; ideo, quia oppositi sunt oriens et occidens, ideo immediate ordinantur; item, quia meridies et septentrio⁹, ideo similiter immediate ponuntur in modum crucis.

IV. Sed 1. de hoc est dubitatio, quod dicit: Ad locum suum revertitur, quia nullus est in firmamento magis unus locus solis quam alius. — Si tu dicas, quod ad locum, a quo incepit cursum; istud manifeste falsum est, quia semper sol movetur motu proprio vel ascendendo, vel descendendo: ergo nunquam redit in idem.

2. Item, quid est quod dicit: Flectens ad aquilonem. Si enim sol movetur motu diurno motu firmamenti; et firmamentum uniformiter similiter movetur: ergo non flectitur magis ad polum arcticum quam ad antarcticum, vel e contrario. — Si dicas, p. 15 quod intelligitur: motu proprio; sed sol secundum motum proprium ascendit et descendit in zodiaco, et quando ascendit, accedit ad aquilonem; quando descendit, appropinquat ad austrum: ergo non magis flectitur ad aquilonem quam ad austrum.

Respondeo: dicendum, quod est loqui de motu solis diurno et annuo. Si loquamur de annuo, verum est, quod sol in locum suum revertitur, quia inde coepit moveri. Si autem intelligamus de diurno, non redit in locum suum, a quo coepit moveri, secundum veritatem, sed secundum nostram aestimationem, quoniam non facit sphaeram, sed spiram.

2. Ad secundum dicendum similiter, quod si loquamur de motu annuo, veritatem habet secundum quatuor tempora, ut praedictum est¹, quia oritur in vere, occidit in autumno, gyrat per meridiem in hieme, flectitur ad aquilonem in aestate. — Si autem intelligas de motu diurno, hoc non habet veritatem nisi secundum nostram aestimationem. Nos enim videmus, firmamentum moveri, et imaginamur polos eius a dextris et a sinistris; sed non est sic, immo unus polus est quasi super capita nostra, ut aquilonaris; alter quasi sub pedibus. Quando ergo sol volvitur secundum polos firmamenti, non recte vadit super capita et sub pedibus, sed quasi transversaliter; et quia nos videmus² secundum aequalitatem, videtur nobis, quod de die vergat ad meridiem et de nocte ad aquilonem.

V. Item quaeritur de hoc quod dicit: Flumina exeunt a mari.

Contra: Mare est amarum, et flumina dulcia; sed contraria non habent ortum ab uno principio, nec unum ab alio³: ergo nec mare a fluminibus, nec flumina a mari.

Respondeo: dicendum, quod omnis aqua per naturam est dulcis vel insipida, ut dicit Philosophus⁴; sed amara fit ex accidenti, vel per exhalationem partium subtilium, remanentibus terrestribus, vel per commixtionem partium terrestrium. E contrario aqua illa, sicut accidentaliter facta est amara, potest redire in dulcedinem per subtiliationem; sicut est experimentum de vase terreo posito in mari. Quoniam igitur flumina, etsi redeant ad mare in magna abundantia, tamen exeunt latenter et sub terra et per quasdam excolationes; ideo aqua subtiliatur et in dulcedinem vertitur.

Quod ergo obiicitur, quod unum contrariorum non habet ortum ab alio; dicendum, quod aquae non est contraria; et si habeat contrariam dispositionem, non habet per naturam, sed per accidens, sicut patet in aqua calida et frigida. Nec est ortus fluminum a mari ratione proprietatis, quia prior per naturam est dulcedo in aqua, sed quantum ad defluxum, sicut potus vini a dolio; quia ille locus continens est aquarum abundantiam, unde incessanter fit emanatio.

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There follows the treatise of this book.

(V. 2.). Vanity of vanities, said Ecclesiastes, vanity of vanities, and all is vanity. — Here the treatise begins; and because « the end imposes necessity on the things that are ordered to the end⁸ »; since the end of this book is the contempt of all things and the fear of God alone: therefore in all things he intends to show vanity. And because he proceeds as a preacher, by persuading and by proving, therefore this treatise has three parts: for first he proposes what he intends to prove, namely that there is vanity in all things; secondly he proves it, there⁹: What hath a man more of all his labour etc.; thirdly he concludes it as proved, towards the end: Vanity of vanities etc.

The proposition of the thing to be proved.

He proposes, therefore, a threefold vanity in things, namely of penalty, of iniquity, of mutability. As to the vanity of penalty: Vanity of vanities, said Ecclesiastes, that is, he proposed it. Of this, below in the second chapter¹⁰: All his days are full of sorrows, neither doth his mind rest in the night; and is not this vanity? — As to the vanity of iniquity he says again: Vanity of vanities; whence Jeremias p. 11 the tenth chapter¹: Their works are vain and worthy of laughter; in the day of their visitation they shall perish. — As to the vanity of mutability he says: and all is vanity, because all things are subject to mutability; to the Romans, the eighth chapter²: The creature was made subject to vanity, not willingly; and below in the third chapter: All things are subject to vanity, and all things go to one place. It is not therefore a harping upon words, when he says vanity three times, but a wonderful distinction of things intelligible.

And it is to be noted that this threefold vanity stands in consequence upon itself, and one arises from another: for the vanity of iniquity arises from the vanity of mutability, although the latter is not the whole cause; but the vanity of penalty from the vanity of iniquity. He therefore sets these vanities in an order that is preposterous and resolutive, and follows them in the contrary way in what comes after. And because that twofold vanity takes its origin from another vanity, but the third does not; therefore twice³ he says vanity of vanities, and afterwards only vanity.

It is also to be noted that this threefold vanity is found in man, because he is the one upon whom punishment and fault fall; and on account of this it is said in the Psalm⁴: All is vanity, every man living. For there is in him the vanity of nature, the vanity of fault and the vanity of punishment. Of the vanity of nature, in the Psalm: Man is become like to vanity, his days pass away like a shadow. Of the vanity of fault, likewise in the Psalm: The Lord knoweth the thoughts of men, that they are vain. Of the vanity of punishment, Job the fourteenth chapter: Man born of a woman, living for a short time, is filled with many miseries.

It is also to be noted that Solomon himself speaks of himself as of another, as John does in the twenty-first chapter⁵: This is that disciple who giveth testimony of these things; and Moses likewise. Now a threefold reason can be assigned for this: one is on the part of the first efficient cause, because the Holy Spirit himself is the author of Scripture, not Solomon or anyone else; therefore, when he himself is introduced in sacred Scripture, Scripture must make mention of him as of another, as Balaam said in Numbers the twenty-fourth chapter⁶: He hath said, the hearer of the words of God etc. — Another reason is taken on the part of the immediate efficient cause: because Scripture shuns all pride and puts forward humility; and therefore no doctor in it ought to speak of himself as of himself, but for humility's sake as of another⁷. — The third reason: when Scripture hints at great and wonderful things, it ought to show them as it were from afar; whence Hugh⁸: « This manner of speaking, as often as it is taken up in Scripture, is used either for the sake of humility or for the sake of wonder. For great things we ought to put away from ourselves out of humility, and wonderful things to show as it were from far off out of wonder ». The example is in Paul and in John.

The division of the whole proof.

What hath a man more etc. Above he proposed what he intends to prove, here he begins to prove it; and according as a threefold vanity was proposed to be in things, so a threefold vanity is proved. Whence this part has three parts. For first he shows that there is in things the vanity of mutability; secondly, the vanity of iniquity, there⁹: I saw under the sun in the place of judgment wickedness; thirdly, the vanity of penalty, below in the seventh chapter: I have tried all things in wisdom. « The first is natural and fitting, as Hugh says; the second is culpable, because it is perverse; but the third is penal and wretched ».

Part I. The vanity of mutability is proved as to two things.

Now mutability in things is considered in two ways: in one way by reason of transmutation, in another way in comparison with the measure of a determinate time. First, therefore, he treats of the vanity of mutable nature as to transmutation; secondly, as to time, below in the third chapter¹⁰: All things have their season.

Member I of the first part. The vanity of mutable nature is shown as to transmutation.

The first has two parts, for first he shows that there is mutability in things, and through this vanity; but secondly, out of the knowledge of it he reproves his own curiosity, there¹¹: I Ecclesiastes was king etc.

Art. 1. Mutability is proved in the existence of creatures as to their twofold being.

First, therefore, mutability is shown in the existence of creatures. And because creatures have a threefold being, namely in the Word, by reason of exemplarity; in the universe, by way of materiality; in the human mind, by way of abstraction¹²; the first being is unfailing and immutable, whence it has no vanity; but in the others there is vanity; and therefore this part has two: for first the vanity of mutability is noted in things according to the being which they have in the universe; secondly, as to the being which they have in the human mind, there¹³: All things are hard etc. p. 12

The vanity of mutability is proved according to the being of things in the universe, and this in three ways.

The first part has three parts according to the three kinds of creatures in which he shows mutability: for first he shows it in the rational creature; secondly, in the heavenly, there¹: The sun riseth; thirdly, in the elemental, there: Compassing all things etc.

(V. 3, 4.). As to the rational creature, therefore, that is to say man, he shows that there is mutability, from which by no labour can one be rescued; on account of which he says: What hath a man more of all his labour, that he taketh under the sun? Supply: except vanity and mutability, as if he should say: nothing. Of this labour it is said in Job the fifth chapter²: « A bird is born for flying, and man for labour »; and in Genesis the third chapter: « Cursed is the earth in thy work; in labour shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life ». — And that he has nothing more than vanity, he shows when he adds: One generation passeth away, and another generation cometh. Therefore there is change and succession both in man and in his works; Ecclesiasticus the fourteenth chapter³: « Some things are begotten, and others are cast down; so is the generation of flesh and blood: one is ended, and another is born »; according to what is said in James the fourth chapter: « What is your life but a vapour appearing for a little while »? But while they are corrupted, they do not pass into nothing, but into something, because into earth; whence it was said to Adam⁴: « Dust thou art, and into dust thou shalt return ». Therefore he adds: But the earth standeth for ever, as the matter into which the resolution is made; the Psalm: « Who hast founded the earth upon its own stability »; and Proverbs the eighth chapter: « When he balanced the foundations of the earth ».

(V. 5, 6.). The sun riseth and goeth down etc. Here he shows, secondly, mutability in the heavenly nature, as for instance in the sun, which never rests, but when it rises, tends towards its setting, whence it does not remain at its rising. Therefore he says: The sun riseth and goeth down, so that it does not remain in the place of its rising nor yet in the place of its setting; whence he adds: And returneth to his place. Nor does it remain there, whence he further adds: And there rising again he maketh his round by the south. Nor does it remain even in the middle place; therefore he adds: And turneth again to the north.

This can be expounded as to the daily motion, or also as to the yearly. As to the daily, Hugh says⁵: « The sun riseth daily, when it is presented to human sight. It goeth down, when, descending to the lower parts, it withdraws itself from our eyes. It returneth to his place, because, the revolution below driving it on, it returns again to its own place. But rising again he maketh his round by the south, because by an oblique course it climbs from its rising to the meridian line; then it turneth again to the north, because, descending to its setting, it is again by an oblique advance inclined towards the north ». — As to the yearly motion thus: « The sun riseth, when through the vernal equinox it mounts towards our pole. It goeth down, when through the autumnal equinox it goes out and descends to the lower regions. He maketh his round by the south⁶, when it abides in the winter signs. It turneth again to the north, when it is carried about in the summer signs, which are nearer to the northern pole ». And thus the sun does not stand still by nature, but only by miracle, as we read in Josue the tenth chapter⁷: « Move not, O sun, toward Gabaon, nor thou, O moon, toward the valley of Hailon » etc.

(V. 6.). Compassing all things. Here mutability is touched upon, thirdly, in the elemental nature, and first as to the air, secondly as to the water, there: All the rivers run into the sea. — As to the air, when he touches mutability in the spirit or wind, which either is the motion of the air according to some philosophers, or according to Aristotle⁸ the motion of vapour in the air, at whose motion the air too is moved. On account of which he says: Compassing all things the spirit goeth about in a circuit, that is, the wind goes round compassing all things. The spirit is called the wind; Exodus the fifteenth chapter⁹: « Thy wind blew, O Lord, and the sea covered them »; and in the Psalm: « Fire, hail, snow, ice, stormy winds ». — This goeth about in a circuit, because it arises from the four quarters of the earth; Zacharias the second chapter¹⁰: « Flee from the land of the north, for I have scattered you into the four winds of heaven »; and Ezechiel the thirty-seventh chapter: « Come from the four winds, p. 13 spirit » etc. For there are four principal winds and eight collateral ones. — And returneth again by his circuits, because the wind then ceases, when that vapour rests and returns to the earth from which it arises. And because that cause is hidden, therefore it is said in the Psalm¹: « Who bringeth forth winds out of his stores », that is, out of hidden places.

Or, as the Gloss expounds it, this can be understood of the sun as to its yearly motion, which compasses all things and returns into the circles of the zodiac; and the sun is called spirit, because it is the principle and cause of all life; whence it makes the rest to breathe.

(V. 7.). All the rivers etc. Here mutability is touched upon as to the visible elemental nature, namely water, because there is no standing still there; for all waters are moved towards the sea; whence he says: All the rivers run into the sea, namely the great ocean, of which it is said in Job the thirty-eighth chapter²: « Who shut up the sea with doors, when it broke forth as issuing out of the womb »? And that motion is not brought to an end, because the sea doth not overflow; therefore he adds: Yet the sea doth not overflow. And because this seems wonderful, therefore he gives the cause of it: Unto the place from whence the rivers come, they return, not that they may rest there, but that they may flow again. The rivers go out hiddenly, they return openly, because they go out through subterranean passages and certain filterings. And thus all things are borne in a circuit and are subject to vanity; Hugh³: « Behold how all things are borne about in a circuit and are subject to vanity; and we know that a circle has no end; the things, therefore, that run in a circuit do indeed run, but they do not arrive at an end. What rest, then, can be hoped for, where there can be no standing still? And therefore of the wicked it is said: « The head of their compassing about »; and again: « The wicked walk round about »; and again: « O my God, make them like a wheel ».

Spiritually it is to be noted who this sun is, who this spirit compassing all things is, and what these rivers are that go about and return.

This sun is Christ, of whom Malachias the fourth chapter⁴: « Unto you that fear my name the Sun of justice shall arise ». This sun riseth at the nativity, to give light; Isaias the sixtieth chapter: « Arise, be enlightened, O Jerusalem »; and John the first chapter: « He was the true light, which enlighteneth every man ». — This sun goeth down, in the passion, to redeem; Amos the eighth chapter⁵: « The sun shall go down at midday », that is, in the vehement love of charity. — This sun returneth to his place, in the ascension; Luke the nineteenth chapter: « A certain man went into a far country » etc. — This sun maketh his round by the south, that is, in the fervent love of the Saints; Canticle the first chapter⁶: « Show me, O thou whom my soul loveth, where thou feedest, where thou liest in the midday »; and John the fourteenth chapter: « If any one love me » etc., and after: « We will come to him and will make our abode with him ». — This one turneth again to the north at the last examination; Jeremias the first chapter: « From the north shall an evil break forth » etc.

This spirit compassing all things is the Holy Spirit, who is therefore said to compass because he makes us search out all things; first to the Corinthians, the second chapter⁷: « The Spirit searcheth all things, yea the deep things of God ». — He is said to go about in a circuit, because he makes us go about; whence Wisdom the seventh chapter⁸: « The spirit of wisdom is mobile »; as also going about, because he makes us consider the circuit of misery; Job the first chapter: « Naked came I out of my mother's womb, and naked shall I return thither ». Likewise the circuit of grace, of which John the sixteenth chapter: « I came forth from the Father and came into the world, and again I leave the world and go to the Father ». Likewise of glory, Ezechiel the first chapter: « This was the appearance of the brightness round about, and this was the likeness of the glory of the Lord ». The Spirit of God makes us consider this; second to the Corinthians, the third chapter: « We, beholding the glory of the Lord with open face » etc. — This circuit lies in the consideration that all things are from God and unto God. And Dionysius says⁹ that the Angels are moved circularly about the throne.

These rivers are the rivers of graces, of which John the seventh chapter¹⁰: « He that believeth in me, as the Scripture saith, out of his belly shall flow rivers ». — The sea, from which the rivers take their origin, is the immensity of the divine bounty, which is neither increased nor diminished; « For great is our Lord and great is his power; and of his wisdom there is no number ». — To this sea return the rivers of thanksgivings, that they may flow again; John the fourth chapter: « He that shall drink of this water which I will give him, it shall become in him a fountain of water springing up into life everlasting ». From this they go out; James the first chapter: p. 14 « Every best gift and every perfect gift is from above ». And as the rivers cease to be and are dried up when they cease to flow and rest; so also the gifts of graces; the Psalm: « Thou hast broken up the fountains and the torrents », by largess; « thou hast dried up the rivers of Ethan », by the severity of judgment.

Questions.

I. It is asked here first concerning that which he says: What hath a man more etc.?

1. This seems to be a heretical opinion and to agree with that saying, that he is vain who serveth God¹.

2. Likewise it is said in the Psalm²: The patience of the poor shall not perish for ever: therefore something etc.

3. Likewise Proverbs the twelfth chapter³: He that tilleth his land shall be filled with bread: therefore it is good to work and to labour.

I respond: as Hugh says⁴, stress must be laid upon this, that he says: That he taketh under the sun; « for it is the same as if he had said: under time ».

On account of which it is to be noted that some things come to be with time, namely those whose beginning time did not precede, as the angelic nature and prime matter. Some things come to be in time, which began after the beginning of time, but have no ending in time, as the soul of Peter. Some things come to be in time and under time, which begin after the beginning of time and are ended in time, of which sort are mutable things. And such are of two kinds: for some come to be for time and under time, and these pass away in act and in fruit; some for eternity, and these pass away in act, but remain in root and in fruit, because a good will remains, to be rewarded for ever.

When therefore he says that a man has nothing but vanity of all his labour, that he taketh under the sun; it is understood according as the labour is under time as to its act and its intention; and then it has no place in good things.

II. Likewise it is asked concerning that which he says: The earth standeth for ever.

Contra: 1. Matthew the twenty-fourth chapter⁵: Heaven and earth shall pass away: therefore the earth does not stand.

2. Likewise, the Apocalypse the twenty-first chapter⁶: I saw a new heaven and a new earth, therefore the earth grows old: therefore it does not stand etc.

I respond: it must be said that the earth's standing is twofold: either as to its substance, or as to its figure or disposition; I say that the earth stands for ever as to its substance, but passes away as to its figure; first to the Corinthians, the seventh chapter⁷: The figure of this world passeth away. But men are generated and corrupted as to their substance, so that they are deservedly called not men but dead.

Or eternal is said in many ways: in one way, that which has no end prescribed in Scripture; thus the land of promise was given to the children of Israel for an everlasting possession. In another way, that which has an end, but not in time; thus time is said to be eternal. In a third way, that whose signification is never ended⁸. In a fourth way, that whose substance is never ended. In a fifth way, that whose substance neither is ended nor began. — In this last way God alone; in the fourth way it belongs to the earth as to its substance, in the third way as to its signification, in the first two ways as to its figure. — And thus the answer to that objection appears in two ways.

III. Likewise it is asked concerning that which he says: The sun riseth and goeth down.

1. For since the other luminaries likewise rise, it is asked why he speaks rather of the sun than of the others?

2. Likewise, he seems to proceed in a disorderly way, because he says that it goeth down before he says that it maketh his round by the south; for it makes its round before it goes down.

I respond: to this it must be said that, mutability being determined in the sun, which is the noblest and most luminous among the heavenly bodies, it is sufficiently given to be understood in the others.

2. To that second it must be said that he does not order them according to their progress, but according to the dimensions or the termini of the dimensions; therefore, because east and west are opposite, they are therefore immediately set in order; likewise, because south and north are⁹, they are likewise immediately placed after the manner of a cross.

IV. But 1. there is a doubt concerning this, that he says: He returneth to his place, because there is no one place of the sun in the firmament more than another. — If thou shouldst say that it is to the place from which it began its course; that is manifestly false, because the sun is always moved by its proper motion either in ascending or in descending: therefore it never returns to the same.

2. Likewise, what is it that he says: Turning again to the north. For if the sun is moved by the daily motion with the motion of the firmament; and the firmament is moved uniformly and in like manner: therefore it is not turned more to the arctic pole than to the antarctic, or conversely. — If you should say p. 15 that it is understood of its proper motion; but the sun according to its proper motion ascends and descends in the zodiac, and when it ascends it approaches the north; when it descends it draws near to the south: therefore it is not turned more to the north than to the south.

I respond: it must be said that one may speak of the sun's daily and yearly motion. If we speak of the yearly, it is true that the sun returns to its own place, because it began to be moved from there. If, however, we understand it of the daily, it does not return to its own place from which it began to be moved, according to the truth, but according to our estimation, since it does not make a sphere but a spiral.

2. To the second it must be said in like manner, that if we speak of the yearly motion, it holds true according to the four seasons, as was said above¹, because it riseth in spring, goeth down in autumn, maketh its round by the south in winter, turneth again to the north in summer. — If, however, you understand it of the daily motion, this holds no truth except according to our estimation. For we see the firmament moved, and we imagine its poles to be on the right hand and on the left; but it is not so, but rather the one pole is as it were above our heads, namely the northern; the other as it were beneath our feet. When therefore the sun is turned about according to the poles of the firmament, it does not go straight over our heads and under our feet, but as it were transversely; and because we see² according to an equality, it seems to us that by day it inclines to the south and by night to the north.

V. Likewise it is asked concerning that which he says: The rivers come out of the sea.

Contra: The sea is bitter, and the rivers are sweet; but contraries do not take their origin from one principle, nor the one from the other³: therefore neither the sea from the rivers, nor the rivers from the sea.

I respond: it must be said that all water by nature is sweet or tasteless, as the Philosopher says⁴; but it becomes bitter by accident, either through the exhalation of the subtle parts, the earthy ones remaining, or through the commixture of earthy parts. Contrariwise that water, just as it was made bitter accidentally, can return to sweetness by subtilization; as there is the experiment of the earthen vessel placed in the sea. Since therefore the rivers, even though they return to the sea in great abundance, nevertheless go out secretly and under the earth and through certain filterings; therefore the water is subtilized and turned into sweetness.

As to the objection, then, that one of two contraries does not take its origin from the other; it must be said that it is not contrary to water; and if it have a contrary disposition, it has it not by nature, but by accident, as is clear in hot and cold water. Nor is the origin of the rivers from the sea by reason of a property, because sweetness in water is prior by nature, but as to the outflow, like the drawing of wine from a cask; because that containing place holds an abundance of waters, whence there is unceasingly an emanation.

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